The Fundamentals Of Armenian Identity Or Who Is An Armenian?

[Siamanto]

[I found the following relatively shallow, superficial and of little intellectual depth or value. However, the question of Armenian Identity - no matter what it means - is of relevance, and some may disagree with my assessment. Also, I found the author's choice of the word "fact" a bit puzzling.
Siamanto.]


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AZG Armenian Daily #222, 01/12/2007


National Interests

THE FUNDAMENTALS OF ARMENIAN IDENTITY OR WHO IS AN ARMENIAN?

In the current most complex period of development of Armenia and the
Armenians, the problem of the Armenian identity represents not only an
academic interest but has a serious practical significance. A strong
national identity is a strategic asset in the process of building and
strengthening a nation-state, while the dilution of national identity
by no means facilitates but, moreover, hinders the consolidation of
the individual and society around national goals and objectives.

After all, who can be considered Armenian today? As sensitive as this
question is, since it touches the feelings of millions of people
(especially our compatriots abroad), answering it is imperative. For
an adequate illustration of the topic let us first present the state
of affairs which the Armenian nation finds itself in today.

There are some irrefutable realities which we must see and accept
exactly as they stand, rather than turn a blind eye to them, as do a
significant section of the Armenians, including its "elite".

Thus:

Fact 1: The Armenian ethnicity is under the threat of extinction on
the territory of its own homeland - in the Republic of Armenia,
Artsakh and Javakhk. This threat springs simultaneously from a number
of interrelated sources:

a) the possibility of military aggression by Azerbaijan;

b) a critical demographic crisis (the exhodus of over a million
Armenian citizens and the ongoing emigration negatively impact the
viability of all spheres of life in the country);

c) the stalling of Armenian nation/state building process as well as
the solidification of its political institutions;

d) uncultivated state of Armenia's National Security doctrine ("The
Armenian National Security Strategy" adopted in February 2007 is a
declarative document, which, according to official announcements, has
been written with the "methodology" and "editorship" of Moscow,
Washington and Brussels experts). Consequently, there is a
conspicuous absence of a clear Foreign Policy Direction based on
national interests.

e) Armenia's heavy dependence on foreign powers;

f) social tension, including the class and regional aspects (inter
alia, the artificially created but effectively maintained dangerous
antagonism between "hayastantsi" and "gharabaghtsi", the total
mistrust towards politicians and political institutions, the
alianation of the people from the decision-making process);

g) the complete absence of any struggle against corruption which
pervades all spheres of public life in the republic;

h) the lack of a consistent language policy in Armenia, resulting in a
defenseless and vulnerable state of the Armenian language;

i) The Georgian state policy of forcing out Armenians >From Javakhk
using administrative, economic, cultural, religious, linguistic and
demographic pressures, and now even through open show and use of
force.

Yet, the foremost threat is characterized by the highly probable
Azerbaijani aggression, which is being methodically planned and
scrupulously prepared, with Turkey's direct and indirect
participation. If it were to succeed ending in the occupation of
Artsakh and the liberated territory around it, the disappearance of
the Republic of Armenia from the world map would be inevitable because
the next, if not simultaneous, attack will be directed against Syunik
- the last dividing bastion between these two Turkic allies. The
existence of Syunik, without the shielding "barrier" of Artsakh, would
become untenable. The weak communication links with central regions of
Armenia, the absence of any defensive depth putting all of Syunik
within range of Azerbaijan's modern artillery systems, as well as the
psychological trauma from the fall of Artsakh would reduce the
defensibility of this strategically vital region to nearly zero. The
resulting encirclement of the remainder of Armenia in a
Turkish-Azerbaijani ring, will transform it into a ghetto - a kind of
Transcaucasian Swaziland. Subsequently, the obliteration of Armenia
by Azerbaijan and Turkey, if not through military action, then through
economic, political and psychological pressures, will simply be a
matter of time. Thus being deprived of any prospects for sustainable
development and losing its role as a potential safe haven for the
millions of Armenians scattered throughout the world, the resulting
geometrically progressed mass emigration would weaken Armenia to the
degree of being divided by and absorbed into Turkey, Azerbaijan and
Georgia. Although the Armenian nation succeeded in eliminating this
very scenario in the 1990s, the Turco-Azeri alliance, far from
forsaking it, will attempt to implement it if Armenians prove unable
to mount an effective resistance.

Fact 2: Armenians can survive only if Armenia survives - as an
Armenian state and the Armenian nation living within it.

Fact 3: Without Armenia, the Armenian Spyurk (Diaspora) cannot
represent a nation, i.e., a viable entity ensuring national
preservation and reproduction of Armenian race (let alone the
preservation and development of the Armenian language and culture).

Fact 4: During the last decades the inevitable acculturation and
assimilation processes in Spyurk have sharply accelerated to an
unprecedented level. In particular, as a result of emigration, every
year the ranks of the Armenian communities are thinning out in the
Middle East, where until recently the percentage of mixed marriages
were extremely low, and the Armenian schools and other community
structures functioned effectively. In 20-30 years from now there will
remain at best tiny islands of the once flourishing communities of
Lebanon, Iran and Syria, similar to what has already happened to the
Armenians of Iraq. As for the Armenians living in Russia and the
developed West, they are subject to even faster acculturation and
assimilation.

Fact 5: There is no Armenian culture without the Armenian
language. Along with the statehood and the territory under its
control, the language is the foundation and paramount means of
preserving the Armenian ethnicity. The fact that many of our
compatriots, especially in Spyurk, can feel and consider themselves
Armenian without knowing the Armenian language, is possible only
thanks to the people of Armenia who still speak, write and create in
Armenian. Let us picture a hypothetical situation where Armenians in
Armenia have forgotten their mother tongue and communicate with one
another, are educated, write and create in a foreign language, no
matter which - Russian, English or Chinese. This would signify nothing
less than the end of the Armenian civilization, the end of the
Armenian culture and the end of the Armenian ethnos!

Yet, today Armenia itself faces the full weight of the challenge of
preserving and developing the Armenian language (i.e. culture). As was
mentioned eaerlier, this is due to the decrease in the number of users
of the Armenian language (including the potential users - children who
received and receive non-Armenian educution abroad) attributable to
the emigration of our compatriots and the absence of appropriate
protection of the Armenian language by the State. After 16 years of
independence, it is high time that we duely acknowledge the
fundamental role and place that language has in the life of a nation -
something that the Armenian political elite and a significant portion
of the intelligentsia fail to do. On the contrary, in the language
policy, just like in certain other fundamental areas, attempts are
still being made to regress the Armenian political thinking.

Conclusions

Conclusion 1: The Armenian nation is in the active phase of the
struggle for survival on a fraction of its own homeland, preserved at
the cost of unimaginable sacrifices. In other words, the Armenian
nation is a struggling organism whose main, vitally important function
is the struggle for survival.

Conclusion 2: The frontlines of this struggle for survival stretch out
not only along Armenia's borders with Azerbaijan and Turkey, but
evidently also throughout the country itself, embracing the spheres of
demography, economy, social life, science and education. Emigration,
regardless of its reasons, removes Armenians, partially or fully, from
the central battlefield for survival, that is - Armenia.
Repatriation, on the other hand, results in the replenishment of a
vitally necessary reserve for the country.
........

http://groong.usc.edu/news/msg212819.html

[Siamanto]

Re: The Fundamentals Of Armenian Identity Or Who Is An Armenian?

2 of 2


AZG Armenian Daily #222, 01/12/2007


National Interests

THE FUNDAMENTALS OF ARMENIAN IDENTITY OR WHO IS AN ARMENIAN?

......

Based on the above-mentioned strategic considerations I will attempt
to answer the question: "who is an Armenian?" and in what way is s/he
differentiated from an Armenian by birth.

One is an Armenian if s/he:

1) considers Armenia his/her only homeland within two dimensions of
time and territory - in her historic and present boundaries;

2) has strong psychological attachments to his homeland - its
territory, people, language and culture;

3) feels personal responsibility for Armenia's fate and assumes
political obligations towards it;

4) if living abroad, seriously contemplates avenues for his and his
family's repatriation;

5) either is or tries to become the bearer of the Armenian language
and culture;

6) strives to maintain his offsprings Armenian, including by means of
passing on to them the knowledge of the Armenian language and by
bringing them into the realm of the national culture.

Those of our compatriots who consider the country of their birth or
citizenship and not Armenia as their homeland, who do not feel
psychological attachments and political responsibility towards
Armenia, who do not wish to think about living in the Homeland, who do
not seek to be the bearers of the Armenian language, who consciously
or unconsciously have reconciled with and are not concerned about the
inevitable assimilation of their offsprings, can be considered
Armenians by origin only, because, in reality, they are already either
cosmopolitans or representatives of another nationality. Indeed, it
does not matter at all if they shout from the rooftops that they are
the most real and authentic Armenians (a genuine self-deception!). The
fact is that these individuals, regardless of the reasons, are beyond
the nation's life-process and do not partake in its subsistence even
at its most fateful moment.

It should also be emphasized that genetics are of a secondary
importance in determining of an Armenian or any other national
identity. The real identity of an individual is defined by his
personal involvement in and contribution to the life processes of the
relevant nation.

Thus, we should differentiate between an Armenian on the one hand, and
a person of Armenian origin on the other. This does not mean at all
that the former is good and the latter is bad. Simply, the latter no
longer can or wants to sacrifice anything for the sake of Armenia and
already has a fundamentally different national self-consciousness.

For Armenians by origin it would be useful perhaps to look at
themselves honestly and without self-deception and hypocracy: They
have actually left the field of the nation's life
activities. Nevertheless, the road is still open for them both ways -
total and irreversible assimilation or the return to national roots,
the rediscovery of the Armenian language and culture and participation
in the nation's life. In this sense, a large segment of Spyurk are
potential Armenians. Unfortunately, such alianated potential Armenians
are not rare in Armenia itself, who are fully or partially cut off
from the Armenian language, culture and politics and who fail to
perceive the common threat of extinction facing all Armenians.

I would like to repeat what I have written about many times
before. Preserving Armenianness abroad, "hayapahpanum", cannot be an
end in/of itself. The true goal for the preservation of Diasporan
Armenians is their reunion with their motherland under the auspieces
of an independent state, as of now on the territory under the control
of Armenian armed forces. Considering the preservation of
Armenianness an end goal (as a considerable part of the Armenians
abroad does) severely weakens the most important elements of the same
"hayapahpanum."

The struggle for physical survival is unfortunately the core function
of life of the Armenian nation. It is this very function that
determines and necessitates the fundamental pillar of the Armenian
identity - direct and personal engagement in this struggle for the
realisation of the national objectives, which presently are:

- the preservation at all cost of that territory, essential for
security, on which Armenia (RA and NKR together with the liberated
territory around it) has existed for the whole period of its latest
independence;

- the increasing of the number of the Armenian population in the
Homeland;

- the preservation of the Armenians of Javakhk on their lands;

- the building of a nation-state based on the principles of rule of
law, social justice, democracy and protection of national interests
and values, including the development of the Armenian language and
culture.

There are tremendous practical, ideological and psychological
obstacles and ossified stereotypes that must be overcome throughout
this struggle. They emanate essentially from non-Armenian sources but
are often coming in to the scene through those Armenian political
structures which long ago or recently have fallen under the slavish
dependence of foreign powers. The engagement in the struggle for the
achievement of the above-mentioned objectives will underpin an
Armenian's ethnic resistability with such a breath of emotions,
feelings and knolewdge that he/she will indeed have the drive and the
need to acquire and become the bearer of the basic elements of the
national self-consciousness - the language, culture, customs and
traditions.

To sum up, we can conclude that as long as Armenia as a nation and
state is drawn into a long-term struggle for survival against powers
superior in terms of numbers, resources and territory (Turkey and
Azerbaijan), the most natural and functionally strongest ethnically
differentiating characteristic feature of an Armenian is the
acknowledgment and assumption of personal responsibility -
proportionate to his/her strengths and capabilities - for destiny of
the homeland.

By Armen Ayvazian, Ph.D. in Political Science, Director of the
"Ararat" Center for Strategic Research

P. S. At the end I invite you to read an English translation of an
excerpt from a poem by Raphael Patkanyan entitled "The Armenian and
Armenianness" written back in 1855, and a quote from Garegin Nzhdeh.
Both are most relevant to this discourse.



Who is an Armenian? Is he the one who speaks in Armenian?

Or whose name ends with the suffix yan?

The one who always eats tolma, pilav for lunch

Or proudly always wears Armenian attire and hat?



Who is an Armenian, is he the one who attends an Armenian Church

And goes to confession at least four times a year?

That has never ignored the lent and also fasts during that

And when he yawns he crosses his open mouth?



No, my dear, nationhood is not an external act

Not even your Armenian birth will give you that right...

If you are an Armenian, you must respect the Armenians for sure,

Armenia for you must be the star of hope...



Love your nation not by words but as you love yourself,

For her sake if necessary, sacrifice all your self,

Don't even save your life, give your blood to her

Not with the hope that your nation instatntly will appreciate you.

(Translated from Armenian by Hratch V. Vartanian, M.D.)

Later, in mid-20th century the same concept is highlighted by Garegin
Nzhdeh: "Armenia! He who did not know how to die for you in your hour
of need and who will not want to die for you tomorrow - is not your
son, is not an Armenian!"

This coincidence could testify only to the following: the struggle for
survival of the Armenian nation has now been going on for over one and
a half century

http://groong.usc.edu/news/msg212819.html

[jgk3]

Re: The Fundamentals Of Armenian Identity Or Who Is An Armenian?

I am making an active effort to relearn all aspects of my language. I also intend to study in the field of linguistics and hope to use what I learn for Armenian. I am deeply puzzled however about the political aspect of our country, because as you said, it's entirely in the hands of foreign powers, and I am acutely aware of the assimilation of the diaspora, as it affects my siblings here in Canada, and many Armenians in general of my young generation who have no interest in our history or perpetuation, and at best, live in the moment with their Armenian identity as more of an ornamental feature, than a cause.

Western values of multiculturalism are probably responsible for this... Multiculturalism is a paradoxical sham. It assimilates individual ethnicities into a "multicultural" race and ethos and if not with the first or second generation, will eventually wipe out the values of an ethnic group that come from their distinct homeland and nation (with the exception of xxxs because their religion continues to be so powerful and instrumental in defining their race and the causes its members are bound to).

What is your ethnic background worth when your nationhood is gone? I say, nothing. Your culture is now completely defined by social class within the nation that assimilated you.

[Siamanto]

Re: The Fundamentals Of Armenian Identity Or Who Is An Armenian?

RUSSIA'S DIASPORA CAPITAL: KEY ACTORS AND CONDITIONS FOR ACCUMULATION

Eurasian Home Analytical Resource, Russia
Dec 10 2007

ELENA YATSENKO, President of the Eurasia Heritage Foundation, Moscow

It is not the first year that the Eurasia Heritage Foundation
specializing in economic and socio-political developments in the
Post-Soviet space has been systematically analyzing the situation
around the Russian World. From our point of view, what appears to be
quite relevant here is the accumulation of one of the main resources
of the Russian World's development - that of the diaspora capital.

It is noteworthy that modern diasporas have a number of distinctive
features.

First of all, diaspora is a political phenomenon. And the key factor
for its development is not an ethnic entity but rather a nation-state.

Diaspora forms a specific image of life behaviour, which is influenced
not only by demographic or ethnic reality, but by other factors too.

Modern diasporas are characterized by the shrinking role of the ethnic
component and that of religious adherence, while the search for some
other models of embedding or forging referential links with certain
world historic systems and ideological and political currents seems
to be an increasingly important aspect thereof. What we are seeing
developing behind the usual facade of the diaspora is the emergence
of transnational communities.

Life has proven that monoethnicity, monoculturalism and
monoconfessionalism are desirable but not necessary conditions for the
existence of a consolidated diaspora. Moreover, the aforementioned
factors do not necessarily imply that Metropolia's interaction with
the diaspora will be intensive, not to mention efficient.

For example, in Russia, Tajikistan, and Israel about 80 % of the
citizens claim to belong to the titular ethnic group. However, the xxxs
alone have been able to come up with a genuinely efficient model of
interaction with the diaspora and have established a diaspora network
over the centuries.

The following are typical examples of the most ethnically homogeneous
countries: Greece (98 % of the citizens belong to the titular ethnic
group), Poland (97,5 %), Armenia (96 %), Albania (95 %), Finland
(93 %), China (92 %), Hungary and Azerbaijan (90 %). These countries
have different levels of socio-political and economic development,
their involvement in the global processes is dissimilar too, yet some
of them have already created state-sponsored models of interaction
with their diasporas and in so doing gained political and economic
success at the international level.

It is common international practice to harness the diaspora's potential
in establishing a network of economic, socio-political, cultural and
other links. For example, a very short while ago we all witnessed
the success of the Armenian diaspora when the USA in fact recognized
the Genocide of the Armenians of 1915-1923 by Turkey. And "the bamboo
network" (colloquial for The Overseas Chinese business networks, OCBN)
is in itself a model of how diaspora business circles operate in the
interests of their country of origin, while independently obtaining a
financial, economic, and political autonomy. It is enough to remember
that 4 % of Indonesia's Chinese control about 70 % of the country's
economy.

Let us take a look at the state-of-the-art of accumulation of Russia's
diaspora capital. Who might become its key donors and actors? What
are the necessary conditions for it to emerge?

There are two ways of creating financial basis for any diaspora:
through the state's efforts (in our case - Russia's) or through
raising the diaspora's capital with its own efforts.

So far the Russian diaspora has been gaining financial support via
social organizations, in the circumstances of lack of transparency in
distributing the resources, which impeded the creation of a resource
base and caused a cohort of "compatriots by profession" to appear. As
a result, all ways of communication with Russian authorities in charge
of interacting with the compatriots abroad, were monopolized by such
structures. It is especially true about the Post-Soviet space. Thus,
we have to admit that the paternalistic model of co-operation with
the compatriots' organizations abroad has proven unable to create
the necessary infrastructure for developing a diaspora. As one of
the compatriots, who is well integrated in the social and business
environment of the country of residence, points out, this model "gives
a freebie fish instead of a fishing rod and the skill to use it".

At the same time we have to admit, first, that Russia is "overfocused"
on the problems of the part of the diaspora that has failed to adapt
to the new environment, whereas other countries concentrate more on
the diaspora representatives who have become part of the political and
economic establishment of the country of residence. Second, today's
Russia is only capable of rending support to the veterans, pensioners,
socially vulnerable groups, and of coordinating certain cultural
programs. But it is unable to implement such ambitious projects as
creation of a network structure. There is no technology, no consistent
policy, no infrastructure. This all has yet to be created.

Yet Russia is not a monopolist in interacting with the Russian
diaspora. American and European foundations are active players in this
field too. They are interested in the young Russian-speaking elite,
they get involved through different schools, scientific centres,
etc. The approach they have adopted is this: let Russia mess around
with the marginal groups in the Russian midst, and we will deal with
the elite that has adapted and bring it up in the spirit of Western
values. Titular countries are also actively involved. And it is
not uncommon when they have more resources than Russia does. The
relationship with the country is established by way of long and
lengthy contacts at all levels: expert, economic, cultural. Support
groups or "influence agents" are brought into play. These are people
or groups that are in charge of establishing contacts in the ethnic
environment. At present Russia has no such practice.

Despite the fact that from historical point of view it has not been
long since the Soviet Union collapsed, this period of time was
enough for representatives of all waves of emigration, including
"the cataclysm diasporas", to decide what country to live in and
what to do next. Many compatriots have now well integrated into the
socio-political and economic realities of their country of residence.

They got used to living and working in a competitive environment
with a foreign language and a foreign faith. Many of them think
of themselves as "other" Russians, which does little to inspire
them to take part in the life of Russian cultural, educational and
charity organizations. Yet another deterring factor is the lack of
due management. Investment of resources must be efficient. Today it
is the necessary condition for the formation of the diaspora capital,
which can become the inner source for the development and enhancement
of the Russian World.

Businesses both in Russia and in the country of compatriots' residence
want to understand what they will gain from their investment. And
this means that there is a need to convert financial capital into
political capital, which in its turn should yield certain benefits
and preferences with Russian authorities supporting businesses'
efforts through the official structures.

By the way, benefits and preferences for businesses supporting the
diaspora as stipulated by Article 16 of the Federal Law "On Russian
Federation's Policy in Regard to Compatriots Living Abroad" still have
not come into force. Businesses do not regard themselves as acting in
a legal field as genuine participants of this process. As a result,
business and intellectual elite of the Russian diaspora remains
virtually unrepresented in the coordinating councils of Russian
compatriots, and marginal individuals are all but fighting to take
seats in them.

Systematic accumulation of the diaspora capital will not happen unless
a mutually beneficial system of partnership between Russian businesses
abroad and Russia's economic agents is set up. To fulfil this task
the government has to initiate this process, think over a system of
incentives and control over them. It is important to take into account
the fact that Russian business has long ago crossed the country's
boundaries and become supranational. It is now capable of becoming a
partner in this niche. Especially in the project activities. In other
words, businessmen in Russia and abroad could finance the projects
that contribute to the preservation and development of the Russian
language, culture and education abroad.

But to do this they have to be sure to gain certain benefits from
Russia. It is precisely the question of supporting the projects rather
than compatriots' organizations abroad. Accordingly, to implement
project activities there is a need for competent management, which
implies training personnel. And this is an extremely important issue
related to the resources of the Russian World.

Another potential source of the diaspora capital could become
economic circles who have close ties with Russia, regardless of their
ethnicity. If the so-called titular businesses become involved in the
economic communication "Russia - Russian World", this will naturally
lead on to strengthening of the Russian language (the main language
of economic communication in the "near abroad"), generating interest
in Russia and what is going on here.

However, for them to become partners of the Russian World they
have to establish relations with Russian state institutions. This
is the missing link in building the system, where the state is the
structure-forming element of the diaspora and the major designer of
the Russian World. It is precisely the state that adds legitimacy
to its network structures. And the Russian World networks in their
turn enhance the state's effectiveness and help Russia become a
global power.

It is this pattern that the European, Armenian, and now Azerbaijan
diasporas follow. For example, All-Russia Azerbaijan Congress is
headed by Presidents of Russia and Azerbaijan. The Congress has
regional branches in 54 Russian regions and unites about 80 % of
social organizations, registered in Russia, which is about 1,5 million
people. The Union of Armenians in Russia is the largest Armenian
diaspora in the world - around 2,5 million people - which initiated the
creation of World Armenian Congress. The idea of uniting Armenians
world-wide was supported by 138 Armenian organizations from 52
countries in the world. World xxxish Congress, which was created with
the help of large bank structures and international xxxish capital,
has a powerful lobby practically in all countries of residence.

The Russian diaspora is a success story in Romania, where a community
of Russian Old Believers (Lipovans) has been living for three
centuries, since the Church Schism under Patriarch Nikon. Officially
the community comprises about 35 thousand people, but the unofficial
figure is around 100 thousand (which makes it the fifth national
minority in the country). Political activity of Russian Lipovans is
regulated by law, in particular by the Treaty on Friendly Relations
and Co-operation between the Russian Federation and Romania of 2004.

The research carried out by the Ministry of Foreign Affaires of the
Russian Federation [1] asked the community members what spheres of
activity Russian-speaking people living in Romania are most successful
in. In their opinion, Russian-speaking people are most successful
in trade, agriculture, industry, entrepreneurship, culture, art and
sport. Today the local authorities are interested in making sure
that the community of Russian Lipovans is as broadly represented
as possible. They think that this will help them attract Russian
investment. Lipovans are very keen on bringing their representatives to
power. Over the past 18 years they have managed to create a lobby at
different levels of the executive and legislative branches of power,
and today to a certain degree they are capable of influencing the
state's policy and defending their interests.

Prominent politicians and public figures are joining the ranks of the
community. As a result, people in Romania have started to show great
respect for the Lipovans and learn more about their problems. Thus,
they could become a "connecting link" between Romania and Russia. The
situation around studying and preserving the Russian language and
culture has also improved.

When building up the Russian World it is expedient to bear in mind
these models. But to do this Russian government and business community
should have a real image of the state-of-the-art of modern Russian
diasporas abroad. And the business community of the Russian World
has to understand the situation developing in its homeland.

That is why it needs information support. But, unfortunately, we have
to admit that for Russian authorities, society and business circles
Russian compatriots remain "terra incognita". At present there
is no comprehensive "geographical" map of the Russian diaspora,
no large-scale program of carrying out research or elaborating
recommendations. If we are to develop the Russian World, then the
information gap needs to be filled in a systematic way, and the
expert community that examines this complex and multi-faceted issue
professionally, needs to be involved more actively in addressing the
aforementioned objectives.

http://www.eurasianhome.org/xml/t/expert.xml?lang=en&nic=expert&pid=1361&qmonth=0&qyear=0

[Mos]

Re: The Fundamentals Of Armenian Identity Or Who Is An Armenian?

very interesting article

[leva]

Re: The Fundamentals Of Armenian Identity Or Who Is An Armenian?

summary for the article: there will be no "good picture" for the Armenians unless the Armenian people rule Armenian diaspora not european delagation which would eventually be through breaking the ices with the Turks.

[HayotzAmrotz]

Re: The Fundamentals Of Armenian Identity Or Who Is An Armenian?

summary for the article: there will be no "good picture" for the Armenians unless the Armenian people rule Armenian diaspora not european delagation which would eventually be through breaking the ices with the Turks.

Republic of Armenia and the Armenian Diaspora are and always will be as ONE . And when it comes to an average Turk then the only thing we want to break is his ignorance (lack of knowledge) of his own history. Find the truth and free yourself from the brainwash fed to you by your own government. But if you are that government then it's not the ''ices" that we are going to break but your necks!

[Siamanto]

Re: The Fundamentals Of Armenian Identity Or Who Is An Armenian?

MY LIFE AS A MINORITY
Mark Derian

OSU Sentinel

http://media.www.osusentinel.com/media/storage/paper1151/news/2008/01/23/Commentary/My.Life.As.A.Minority-3164715.shtml

Jan 24 2008
OH

As someone with European pigmentation and facial structure, I have
always revered minority groups in America. The troubles they have
endured and still endure today signify their strength as a people.

And to be honest, I have always wanted to be at least part black or
Latino, but I was constrained to only imagine how great it must be
to feel myself as part of a larger, more important whole.

Lucky for me, in 2007 congress passed a resolution that condemned
the Armenian Genocide, the slaughter of roughly two-thirds of the
Armenian population by the Turks during the First World War. This came
as great news to me because I am fifty-percent Armenian; meaning, I was
no longer just another person, I was an oppressed minority. A calling
of such magnitude left me no choice but to live my life for my people.

I embarked on a crusade to raise the collective consciousness of our
downtrodden condition by placing an undue importance on the history of
the Armenian people, especially the Armenian Genocide. I even began
to flaunt my homeland's ancient traditions, no matter how backward
they were. Animal sacrifice and speaking in tongues were good enough
for my ancestors, so they're good enough for me.

To further strengthen my Armenian pride, I began to define myself not
only as an Armenian, but also in opposition to the Turkish people. It
felt great. I could now project my fears and insecurities onto others
so that I wouldn't have to deal with them myself. For instance, I was
walking down the street when I passed a Turk walking in the opposite
direction, and I could just tell that he had it out for me. He was
just too Turkish with his nice suit and upright posture. There's
no way he could understand the realness of my Armenian swagger. He
probably got all scared when he saw my t-shirt logo of a rising fist
surrounded by the outline of Armenia. Also, when I got fired from my
job for being lazy, I just blamed it on my Turkish boss who didn't
get how we did things back in the Caucasus.

The best part is that everyone, the Turks included, gave me the
attention that I was after. This allowed me to further make demands,
act like a victim, and turn off my brain without yielding any negative
consequences. It made life easy like I always wanted it to be.

Even the few Turks that actually do still hate Armenians are a
blessing. Their belligerence only induces more sympathy for my crusade.

It has been many weeks now since I became a minority, and life still
keeps getting better. Before, existence was a constant struggle. I
always had a hard time deciding what to do for a living, and I never
could get a girlfriend. But now I just seek the guidance of my tribe.

I am happy to report that I am now dating a great Armenian girl I
met at the Armenian Orthodox Church where I am studying to become a
professor of Armenian-American studies.

To put the prunes on the mock paklava (thank you, Armenian cooking
class), my self-esteem has never been higher. Though to be honest,
it's not exactly what I thought high self-esteem would feel like;
whatever, happiness and self-righteousness are probably the same thing.

But it was yesterday, while I was at the zoo, that I had an epiphany
which allowed me to understand the ultimate effect of defining myself
by my lineage.

As you may already know, a sign in front of each animal exhibit informs
the zoo's patrons of the species, closest relatives, and country of
origin of the designated animal, which made me realize that humans
identify animals exactly as I now identify myself. We don't learn
about an individual animal by inquiring into its thoughts, feelings,
and beliefs since it doesn't have any. They are nothing over and
above their genetic makeup.

By identifying myself with my bloodline, I have become less of a
human being and more of an animal-quite possibly the most dignified
transformation one can undergo. After all, my psychology, and
environmental biology professors taught me that humans are the most
treacherous species on earth. I mean, it's pretty much self-evident.

There is no need, however, to wait until you are an official minority
like I did. You can still renounce your ego, and surrender to a
group. Don't surrender to just any group for even this entails a
decision. Rather, open yourself up to the wisdom of our animal brethren
and herd with people who look like you, the group into which you were
born. The responsibility of consciousness is a dangerous burden that
none should bear.

[Siamanto]

Re: The Fundamentals Of Armenian Identity Or Who Is An Armenian?

1 of 2

The Enduring Power of Ethnic Nationalism

By Jerry Z. Muller

Foreign Affairs , March/April 2008

----------------------------------------------------------------

Summary: Americans generally belittle the role of ethnic nationalism
in politics. But in fact, it corresponds to some enduring propensities
of the human spirit, it is galvanized by modernization, and in one
form or another, it will drive global politics for generations to
come. Once ethnic nationalism has captured the imagination of groups
in a multiethnic society, ethnic disaggregation or partition is often
the least bad answer.

JERRY Z. MULLER is Professor of History at the Catholic University of
America. His most recent book is The Mind and the Market: Capitalism
in Modern European Thought.

Projecting their own experience onto the rest of the world, Americans
generally belittle the role of ethnic nationalism in politics. After
all, in the United States people of varying ethnic origins live cheek
by jowl in relative peace. Within two or three generations of
immigration, their ethnic identities are attenuated by cultural
assimilation and intermarriage. Surely, things cannot be so different
elsewhere.

Americans also find ethnonationalism discomfiting both intellectually
and morally. Social scientists go to great lengths to demonstrate that
it is a product not of nature but of culture, often deliberately
constructed. And ethicists scorn value systems based on narrow group
identities rather than cosmopolitanism.

But none of this will make ethnonationalism go away. Immigrants to the
United States usually arrive with a willingness to fit into their new
country and reshape their identities accordingly. But for those who
remain behind in lands where their ancestors have lived for
generations, if not centuries, political identities often take ethnic
form, producing competing communal claims to political power. The
creation of a peaceful regional order of nation-states has usually
been the product of a violent process of ethnic separation. In areas
where that separation has not yet occurred, politics is apt to remain
ugly.

A familiar and influential narrative of twentieth-century European
history argues that nationalism twice led to war, in 1914 and then
again in 1939. Thereafter, the story goes, Europeans concluded that
nationalism was a danger and gradually abandoned it. In the postwar
decades, western Europeans enmeshed themselves in a web of
transnational institutions, culminating in the European Union
(EU). After the fall of the Soviet empire, that transnational
framework spread eastward to encompass most of the
continent. Europeans entered a postnational era, which was not only a
good thing in itself but also a model for other regions. Nationalism,
in this view, had been a tragic detour on the road to a peaceful
liberal democratic order.

This story is widely believed by educated Europeans and even more so,
perhaps, by educated Americans. Recently, for example, in the course
of arguing that Israel ought to give up its claim to be a Jewish state
and dissolve itself into some sort of binational entity with the
Palestinians, the prominent historian Tony Judt informed the readers
of The New York Review of Books that "the problem with Israel ... [is
that] it has imported a characteristically late-nineteenth-century
separatist project into a world that has moved on, a world of
individual rights, open frontiers, and international law. The very
idea of a 'Jewish state' ... is an anachronism."

Yet the experience of the hundreds of Africans and Asians who perish
each year trying to get into Europe by landing on the coast of Spain
or Italy reveals that Europe's frontiers are not so open. And a survey
would show that whereas in 1900 there were many states in Europe
without a single overwhelmingly dominant nationality, by 2007 there
were only two, and one of those, Belgium, was close to breaking
up. Aside from Switzerland, in other words -- where the domestic
ethnic balance of power is protected by strict citizenship laws -- in
Europe the "separatist project" has not so much vanished as triumphed.

Far from having been superannuated in 1945, in many respects
ethnonationalism was at its apogee in the years immediately after
World War II. European stability during the Cold War era was in fact
due partly to the widespread fulfillment of the ethnonationalist
project. And since the end of the Cold War, ethnonationalism has
continued to reshape European borders.

In short, ethnonationalism has played a more profound and lasting role
in modern history than is commonly understood, and the processes that
led to the dominance of the ethnonational state and the separation of
ethnic groups in Europe are likely to reoccur elsewhere. Increased
urbanization, literacy, and political mobilization; differences in the
fertility rates and economic performance of various ethnic groups; and
immigration will challenge the internal structure of states as well as
their borders. Whether politically correct or not, ethnonationalism
will continue to shape the world in the twenty-first century.




THE POLITICS OF IDENTITY

There are two major ways of thinking about national identity. One is
that all people who live within a country's borders are part of the
nation, regardless of their ethnic, racial, or religious origins. This
liberal or civic nationalism is the conception with which contemporary
Americans are most likely to identify. But the liberal view has
competed with and often lost out to a different view, that of
ethnonationalism. The core of the ethnonationalist idea is that
nations are defined by a shared heritage, which usually includes a
common language, a common faith, and a common ethnic ancestry.

The ethnonationalist view has traditionally dominated through much of
Europe and has held its own even in the United States until
recently. For substantial stretches of U.S. history, it was believed
that only the people of English origin, or those who were Protestant,
or white, or hailed from northern Europe were real Americans. It was
only in 1965 that the reform of U.S. immigration law abolished the
system of national-origin quotas that had been in place for several
decades. This system had excluded Asians entirely and radically
restricted immigration from southern and eastern Europe.

Ethnonationalism draws much of its emotive power from the notion that
the members of a nation are part of an extended family, ultimately
united by ties of blood. It is the subjective belief in the reality of
a common "we" that counts. The markers that distinguish the in-group
vary from case to case and time to time, and the subjective nature of
the communal boundaries has led some to discount their practical
significance. But as Walker Connor, an astute student of nationalism,
has noted, "It is not what is, but what people believe is that has
behavioral consequences." And the central tenets of ethnonationalist
belief are that nations exist, that each nation ought to have its own
state, and that each state should be made up of the members of a
single nation.

The conventional narrative of European history asserts that
nationalism was primarily liberal in the western part of the continent
and that it became more ethnically oriented as one moved east. There
is some truth to this, but it disguises a good deal as well. It is
more accurate to say that when modern states began to form, political
boundaries and ethnolinguistic boundaries largely coincided in the
areas along Europe's Atlantic coast. Liberal nationalism, that is, was
most apt to emerge in states that already possessed a high degree of
ethnic homogeneity. Long before the nineteenth century, countries such
as England, France, Portugal, Spain, and Sweden emerged as
nation-states in polities where ethnic divisions had been softened by
a long history of cultural and social homogenization.

In the center of the continent, populated by speakers of German and
Italian, political structures were fragmented into hundreds of small
units. But in the 1860s and 1870s, this fragmentation was resolved by
the creation of Italy and Germany, so that almost all Italians lived
in the former and a majority of Germans lived in the latter. Moving
further east, the situation changed again. As late as 1914, most of
central, eastern, and southeastern Europe was made up not of
nation-states but of empires. The Hapsburg empire comprised what are
now Austria, the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Slovakia and parts of
what are now Bosnia, Croatia, Poland, Romania, Ukraine, and more. The
Romanov empire stretched into Asia, including what is now Russia and
what are now parts of Poland, Ukraine, and more. And the Ottoman
Empire covered modern Turkey and parts of today's Bulgaria, Greece,
Romania, and Serbia and extended through much of the Middle East and
North Africa as well.

Each of these empires was composed of numerous ethnic groups, but they
were not multinational in the sense of granting equal status to the
many peoples that made up their populaces. The governing monarchy and
landed nobility often differed in language and ethnic origin from the
urbanized trading class, whose members in turn usually differed in
language, ethnicity, and often religion from the peasantry. In the
Hapsburg and Romanov empires, for example, merchants were usually
Germans or Jews. In the Ottoman Empire, they were often Armenians,
Greeks, or Jews. And in each empire, the peasantry was itself
ethnically diverse.

Up through the nineteenth century, these societies were still largely
agrarian: most people lived as peasants in the countryside, and few
were literate. Political, social, and economic stratifications usually
correlated with ethnicity, and people did not expect to change their
positions in the system. Until the rise of modern nationalism, all of
this seemed quite unproblematic. In this world, moreover, people of
one religion, language, or culture were often dispersed across various
countries and empires. There were ethnic Germans, for example, not
only in the areas that became Germany but also scattered throughout
the Hapsburg and Romanov empires. There were Greeks in Greece but also
millions of them in the Ottoman Empire (not to mention hundreds of
thousands of Muslim Turks in Greece). And there were Jews everywhere
-- but with no independent state of their own.





THE RISE OF ETHNONATIONALISM

Today, people tend to take the nation-state for granted as the natural
form of political association and regard empires as anomalies. But
over the broad sweep of recorded history, the opposite is closer to
the truth. Most people at most times have lived in empires, with the
nation-state the exception rather than the rule. So what triggered the
change?

The rise of ethnonationalism, as the sociologist Ernest Gellner has
explained, was not some strange historical mistake; rather, it was
propelled by some of the deepest currents of modernity. Military
competition between states created a demand for expanded state
resources and hence continual economic growth. Economic growth, in
turn, depended on mass literacy and easy communication, spurring
policies to promote education and a common language -- which led
directly to conflicts over language and communal opportunities.

Modern societies are premised on the egalitarian notion that in
theory, at least, anyone can aspire to any economic position. But in
practice, everyone does not have an equal likelihood of upward
economic mobility, and not simply because individuals have different
innate capabilities. For such advances depend in part on what
economists call "cultural capital," the skills and behavioral patterns
that help individuals and groups succeed. Groups with traditions of
literacy and engagement in commerce tend to excel, for example,
whereas those without such traditions tend to lag behind.

As they moved into cities and got more education during the nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries, ethnic groups with largely peasant
backgrounds, such as the Czechs, the Poles, the Slovaks, and the
Ukrainians found that key positions in the government and the economy
were already occupied -- often by ethnic Armenians, Germans, Greeks,
or Jews. Speakers of the same language came to share a sense that they
belonged together and to define themselves in contrast to other
communities. And eventually they came to demand a nation state of
their own, in which they would be the masters, dominating politics,
staffing the civil service, and controlling commerce.

Ethnonationalism had a psychological basis as well as an economic
one. By creating a new and direct relationship between individuals and
the government, the rise of the modern state weakened individuals'
traditional bonds to intermediate social units, such as the family,
the clan, the guild, and the church. And by spurring social and
geographic mobility and a self-help mentality, the rise of
market-based economies did the same. The result was an emotional
vacuum that was often filled by new forms of identification, often
along ethnic lines.

Ethnonationalist ideology called for a congruence between the state
and the ethnically defined nation, with explosive results. As Lord
Acton recognized in 1862, "By making the state and the nation
commensurate with each other in theory, [nationalism] reduces
practically to a subject condition all other nationalities that may be
within the boundary. . . . According, therefore, to the degree of
humanity and civilization in that dominant body which claims all the
rights of the community, the inferior races are exterminated, or
reduced to servitude, or outlawed, or put in a condition of
dependence." And that is just what happened.

.......

Copyright 2002--2008 by the Council on Foreign Relations. All rights reserved.

http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20080301faessay87203/jerry-z-muller/us-and-them.html

[Siamanto]

Re: The Fundamentals Of Armenian Identity Or Who Is An Armenian?

2 of 3


The Enduring Power of Ethnic Nationalism

By Jerry Z. Muller

Foreign Affairs , March/April 2008

----------------------------------------------------------------

THE GREAT TRANSFORMATION

Nineteenth-century liberals, like many proponents of globalization
today, believed that the spread of international commerce would lead
people to recognize the mutual benefits that could come from peace and
trade, both within polities and between them. Socialists agreed,
although they believed that harmony would come only after the arrival
of socialism. Yet that was not the course that twentieth-century
history was destined to follow. The process of "making the state and
the nation commensurate" took a variety of forms, from voluntary
emigration (often motivated by governmental discrimination against
minority ethnicities) to forced deportation (also known as "population
transfer") to genocide. Although the term "ethnic cleansing" has come
into English usage only recently, its verbal correlates in Czech,
French, German, and Polish go back much further. Much of the history
of twentieth-century Europe, in fact, has been a painful, drawn-out
process of ethnic disaggregation.

Massive ethnic disaggregation began on Europe's frontiers. In the
ethnically mixed Balkans, wars to expand the nation-states of
Bulgaria, Greece, and Serbia at the expense of the ailing Ottoman
Empire were accompanied by ferocious interethnic violence. During the
Balkan Wars of 1912-13, almost half a million people left their
traditional homelands, either voluntarily or by force. Muslims left
regions under the control of Bulgarians, Greeks, and Serbs; Bulgarians
abandoned Greek-controlled areas of Macedonia; Greeks fled from
regions of Macedonia ceded to Bulgaria and Serbia.

World War I led to the demise of the three great turn-of-the-century
empires, unleashing an explosion of ethnonationalism in the
process. In the Ottoman Empire, mass deportations and murder during
the war took the lives of a million members of the local Armenian
minority in an early attempt at ethnic cleansing, if not genocide. In
1919, the Greek government invaded the area that would become Turkey,
seeking to carve out a "greater Greece" stretching all the way to
Constantinople. Meeting with initial success, the Greek forces looted
and burned villages in an effort to drive out the region's ethnic
Turks. But Turkish forces eventually regrouped and pushed the Greek
army back, engaging in their own ethnic cleansing against local Greeks
along the way. Then the process of population transfers was formalized
in the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne: all ethnic Greeks were to go to
Greece, all Greek Muslims to Turkey. In the end, Turkey expelled
almost 1.5 million people, and Greece expelled almost 400,000.

Out of the breakup of the Hapsburg and Romanov empires emerged a
multitude of new countries. Many conceived of themselves as
ethnonational polities, in which the state existed to protect and
promote the dominant ethnic group. Yet of central and eastern Europe's
roughly 60 million people, 25 million continued to be part of ethnic
minorities in the countries in which they lived. In most cases, the
ethnic majority did not believe in trying to help minorities
assimilate, nor were the minorities always eager to do so
themselves. Nationalist governments openly discriminated in favor of
the dominant community. Government activities were conducted solely in
the language of the majority, and the civil service was reserved for
those who spoke it.

In much of central and eastern Europe, Jews had long played an
important role in trade and commerce. When they were given civil
rights in the late nineteenth century, they tended to excel in
professions requiring higher education, such as medicine and law, and
soon Jews or people of Jewish descent made up almost half the doctors
and lawyers in cities such as Budapest, Vienna, and Warsaw. By the
1930s, many governments adopted policies to try to check and reverse
these advances, denying Jews credit and limiting their access to
higher education. In other words, the National Socialists who came to
power in Germany in 1933 and based their movement around a
"Germanness" they defined in contrast to "Jewishness" were an extreme
version of a more common ethnonationalist trend.

The politics of ethnonationalism took an even deadlier turn during
World War II. The Nazi regime tried to reorder the ethnic map of the
continent by force. Its most radical act was an attempt to rid Europe
of Jews by killing them all -- an attempt that largely succeeded. The
Nazis also used ethnic German minorities in Czechoslovakia, Poland,
and elsewhere to enforce Nazi domination, and many of the regimes
allied with Germany engaged in their own campaigns against internal
ethnic enemies. The Romanian regime, for example, murdered hundreds of
thousands of Jews on its own, without orders from Germany, and the
government of Croatia murdered not only its Jews but hundreds of
thousands of Serbs and Romany as well.




POSTWAR BUT NOT POSTNATIONAL

One might have expected that the Nazi regime's deadly policies and
crushing defeat would mark the end of the ethnonationalist era. But in
fact they set the stage for another massive round of ethnonational
transformation. The political settlement in central Europe after World
War I had been achieved primarily by moving borders to align them with
populations. After World War II, it was the populations that moved
instead. Millions of people were expelled from their homes and
countries, with at least the tacit support of the victorious Allies.

Winston Churchill, Franklin Roosevelt, and Joseph Stalin all concluded
that the expulsion of ethnic Germans from non-German countries was a
prerequisite to a stable postwar order. As Churchill put it in a
speech to the British parliament in December 1944, "Expulsion is the
method which, so far as we have been able to see, will be the most
satisfactory and lasting. There will be no mixture of populations to
cause endless trouble. . . . A clean sweep will be made. I am not
alarmed at the prospect of the disentanglement of population, nor am I
alarmed by these large transferences." He cited the Treaty of Lausanne
as a precedent, showing how even the leaders of liberal democracies
had concluded that only radically illiberal measures would eliminate
the causes of ethnonational aspirations and aggression.

Between 1944 and 1945, five million ethnic Germans from the eastern
parts of the German Reich fled westward to escape the conquering Red
Army, which was energetically raping and massacring its way to
Berlin. Then, between 1945 and 1947, the new postliberation regimes in
Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Yugoslavia expelled another seven
million Germans in response to their collaboration with the
Nazis. Together, these measures constituted the largest forced
population movement in European history, with hundreds of thousands of
people dying along the way.

The handful of Jews who survived the war and returned to their homes
in eastern Europe met with so much anti-Semitism that most chose to
leave for good. About 220,000 of them made their way into the
American-occupied zone of Germany, from which most eventually went to
Israel or the United States. Jews thus essentially vanished from
central and eastern Europe, which had been the center of Jewish life
since the sixteenth century.

Millions of refugees from other ethnic groups were also evicted from
their homes and resettled after the war. This was due partly to the
fact that the borders of the Soviet Union had moved westward, into
what had once been Poland, while the borders of Poland also moved
westward, into what had once been Germany. To make populations
correspond to the new borders, 1.5 million Poles living in areas that
were now part of the Soviet Union were deported to Poland, and 500,000
ethnic Ukrainians who had been living in Poland were sent to the
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. Yet another exchange of
populations took place between Czechoslovakia and Hungary, with
Slovaks transferred out of Hungary and Magyars sent away from
Czechoslovakia. A smaller number of Magyars also moved to Hungary from
Yugoslavia, with Serbs and Croats moving in the opposite direction.

As a result of this massive process of ethnic unmixing, the
ethnonationalist ideal was largely realized: for the most part, each
nation in Europe had its own state, and each state was made up almost
exclusively of a single ethnic nationality. During the Cold War, the
few exceptions to this rule included Czechoslovakia, the Soviet Union,
and Yugoslavia. But these countries' subsequent fate only demonstrated
the ongoing vitality of ethnonationalism. After the fall of communism,
East and West Germany were unified with remarkable rapidity,
Czechoslovakia split peacefully into Czech and Slovak republics, and
the Soviet Union broke apart into a variety of different national
units. Since then, ethnic Russian minorities in many of the
post-Soviet states have gradually immigrated to Russia, Magyars in
Romania have moved to Hungary, and the few remaining ethnic Germans in
Russia have largely gone to Germany. A million people of Jewish origin
from the former Soviet Union have made their way to Israel. Yugoslavia
saw the secession of Croatia and Slovenia and then descended into
ethnonational wars over Bosnia and Kosovo.

The breakup of Yugoslavia was simply the last act of a long play. But
the plot of that play -- the disaggregation of peoples and the triumph
of ethnonationalism in modern Europe -- is rarely recognized, and so a
story whose significance is comparable to the spread of democracy or
capitalism remains largely unknown and unappreciated.





DECOLONIZATION AND AFTER

The effects of ethnonationalism, of course, have hardly been confined
to Europe. For much of the developing world, decolonization has meant
ethnic disaggregation through the exchange or expulsion of local
minorities.

The end of the British Raj in 1947 brought about the partition of the
subcontinent into India and Pakistan, along with an orgy of violence
that took hundreds of thousands of lives. Fifteen million people
became refugees, including Muslims who went to Pakistan and Hindus who
went to India. Then, in 1971, Pakistan itself, originally unified on
the basis of religion, dissolved into Urdu-speaking Pakistan and
Bengali-speaking Bangladesh.

In the former British mandate of Palestine, a Jewish state was
established in 1948 and was promptly greeted by the revolt of the
indigenous Arab community and an invasion from the surrounding Arab
states. In the war that resulted, regions that fell under Arab control
were cleansed of their Jewish populations, and Arabs fled or were
forced out of areas that came under Jewish control. Some 750,000 Arabs
left, primarily for the surrounding Arab countries, and the remaining
150,000 constituted only about a sixth of the population of the new
Jewish state. In the years afterward, nationalist-inspired violence
against Jews in Arab countries propelled almost all of the more than
500,000 Jews there to leave their lands of origin and immigrate to
Israel. Likewise, in 1962 the end of French control in Algeria led to
the forced emigration of Algerians of European origin (the so-called
pieds-noirs), most of whom immigrated to France. Shortly thereafter,
ethnic minorities of Asian origin were forced out of postcolonial
Uganda. The legacy of the colonial era, moreover, is hardly
finished. When the European overseas empires dissolved, they left
behind a patchwork of states whose boundaries often cut across ethnic
patterns of settlement and whose internal populations were ethnically
mixed. It is wishful thinking to suppose that these boundaries will be
permanent. As societies in the former colonial world modernize,
becoming more urban, literate, and politically mobilized, the forces
that gave rise to ethnonationalism and ethnic disaggregation in Europe
are apt to drive events there, too.

........

Copyright 2002--2008 by the Council on Foreign Relations. All rights reserved.

http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20080301faessay87203/jerry-z-muller/us-and-them.html